Urban Heat Islands...

 

Why in News?

Recently, several parts of India are experiencing severe heat waves. Urban areas and cities are the places which have higher temperatures than rural places. This phenomenon is referred to as "Urban Heat Island'.

• According to experts, these temperature discrepancies are caused by variations in heating over highly urbanized and semi-urbanized areas, as well as the relative availability of open and green spaces in the surrounding areas.

What is an Urban Heat Island?

• Urban heat island may be defined as the local and temporary phenomenon in which certain pockets within a city are experiencing higher heat load than its surrounding area.
• This rise of heat basically happens due to buildings and houses of cities made up of concrete where the heat is trapped and not able to dissipate easily.
  • Urban heat island is basically induced due to trapped heat between establishments made up of concrete.
  • The temperature variation can range between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius.

Why are Cities Hotter than Rural Areas?

• It has been observed that greener localities experienced lower temperatures than non-green localities.
• Green vegetation like plants, trees and forests are prominent factors to regulate the incidences of the urban heat islands.
• Rural areas are blessed with more green cover in the form of plantations, farmlands, forests, and trees than urban areas.
• Transpiration is the phenomena which the plants carry to regulate the temperature.
• In urban areas is the basic cause of Urban Heat Island in urban areas.
  • Frequent construction of Highrise structures, roads, parking spaces, pavements, and public transportation transit lines have accelerated the incidences of urban heat islands.
• It occurs by black or any dark colored material.
  • Buildings in cities are often made of glass, bricks, cement, and concrete. All of them are dark-colored materials, which attract and absorb more heat

What are the Causes of Urban Heat Island?

• Manifold increase in construction activities: For building simple urban dwellings to complex infrastructures, carbon absorbing material like asphalt and concrete is needed for the expansion of cities. They trap huge amounts of heat which increases the mean surface temperatures of urban areas.
• Dark surfaces: Many buildings found in urban areas have dark surfaces, thereby decreasing albedo and increased absorption of heat.
• Air conditioning: Buildings with dark surfaces heat up more rapidly and require more cooling from air conditioning, which requires more energy from power plants, which causes more pollution. Also, air conditioners exchange heat with atmospheric air, causing further local heating. Thus, there is a cascade effect that contributes to the expansion of urban heat islands.
• Urban Architecture: Tall buildings, and often accompanying narrow streets, hinder the circulation of air, reduce the wind speed, and thus reduce any natural cooling effects. This is called the Urban Canyon Effect.
• Need for mass transportation system: Transportation systems and the unimpeded use of fossil fuels also add warmth to urban areas.
• Lack of Trees and green areas: which impedes evapotranspiration, shade and removal of carbon dioxide, all the processes that help to cool the surrounding air.

How can Urban Heat Islands be Reduced?

• Increase Area Under Green Cover: Plantation and effort to increase the area under green cover are the primary requirement to cut heat load within urban areas.
• Passive Cooling to Reduce Urban Heat Islands: Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings.
  • The IPCC report cites ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, which could be adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
• Other methods of heat mitigation include using appropriate construction materials.
  • Roof and terraces should be painted in white or light colors to reflect heat and reduce the absorption.
  • Terrace plantation and kitchen gardening should be promoted.

What has NASA said about India's Urban Heat Islands?

• NASA has observed that higher incidences of heat islands in urban parts of Delhi is occurring.
  • Temperatures were significantly higher in the urban part of Delhi than in surrounding farm areas.
• The image was acquired by NASA's Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment (Ecostress), which revealed a massive red spot over Delhi and smaller red patches around neighboring cities Sonipat, Panipat, Jind, and Bhiwani.
  • Ecostress is a radiometer-equipped device that was sent to the International Space Station in 2018 by NASA.
  • Ecostress is primarily responsible for assessing the temperature of plants, as well as knowing their water requirements and the influence of the climate on them.
• These red patches in the data of Ecostress indicated greater temperatures i.e, incidents of urban heat islands, whereas the rural areas surrounding cities had lower temperatures.

For all examination....

 Life is a most

difficult exam.

Many people fail because they

try to copy others, not  realizing

that everyone has a different

question paper.

                                                                                     - Mauli

NATO Membership for Finland and Sweden...

 

Why in News?

Recently, Finland and Sweden have shown interest to join the

 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Why are Sweden and Finland Not NATO Members?

• Finland:
  • It has stayed out of such alliances because it always wanted to maintain cordial relations with its neighbour, Russia.
  • For a long time, the idea of not joining NATO or getting too close to the West was a matter of survival for the Finns.
    • However, the change in perception and an overwhelming support to join NATO came about following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
• Sweden:
  • Unlike Finland, whose policy stance was a matter of survival, Sweden has been opposed to joining the organisation for ideological reasons.

What would a membership mean and will it benefit NATO as well?

• Give Security Guarantee:
  • Being a member of NATO will give the nations a security guarantee under the alliance’s “Article 5” on collective defence.
    • The article essentially guarantees a military response and protection by NATO countries if any member of the organisation comes under attack.
• Strengthen the Alliance’s Position:
  • Finland’s geographical location plays in its favour as once it becomes a member, the length of borders Russia shares with NATO would double and it would also strengthen the alliance’s position in the Baltic Sea.
• Counter Russia’s Aggression:
  • More sovereign powers siding with the west and increasing its strength is a direct blow to Russia.
  • If Sweden and Finland do join NATO, especially under these circumstances, “it would show Russia that the war is counterproductive and it only strengthens Western unity, resolve and military preparedness”.

How have Russia and other Countries Reacted?

• Russia:
  • Russia threatened to take military measures if the membership goes through and warned Finland to be aware of the consequences of this move.
• European and US:
  • European Nations and the United States have welcomed the announcement.
  • Norway and Denmark have said they will push for NATO admission faster.
  • Until the membership is formally accepted, the US stated it is prepared to provide any necessary defence support or address any concerns.
• Turkey:
  • Turkey opposes Finland and Sweden joining NATO.
  • The Turkish government claimed that it could use its membership in the Western alliance to veto moves to admit the two nations.
  • The Turkish government cited Sweden and other Scandinavian countries for supporting Kurdish militants and other groups it considers terrorist.

What is NATO?

• It is a military alliance established by the North Atlantic Treaty (also called the Washington Treaty) of April, 1949, by the United States, Canada, and several Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union.
• There are currently 30 member states.
  • Its original members were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
  • Joining the original signatories were Greece and Turkey (1952), West Germany (1955, from 1990 as Germany), Spain (1982), the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009), Montenegro (2017), and North Macedonia (2020).
  • France withdrew from the integrated military command of NATO in 1966 but remained a member of the organization, it resumed its position in NATO’s military command in 2009.
• Headquarters: Brussels, Belgium.
• Headquarters of Allied Command Operations: Mons, Belgium.

What are the Objectives of NATO?

• NATO’s essential and enduring purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of all its members by political and military means.
  • Political objectives: NATO promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict.
  • Military Objectives: NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations.
    • These are carried out under the collective defence clause of NATO's founding treaty - Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organisations.
    • NATO has only once invoked Article 5, on 12th September 2001 following the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in the US.

Way Forward

• As Finland joins NATO, Russia could seek to deploy more troops along the Russian-Finland border and further thin-out an already attenuated Russian army.
• Finland and Russia share a 1,300 km border and the Russia’s actions against Finland’s (and potentially Sweden’s) NATO membership may heavily depend on the potential military asset deployment along the border on the Finnish, and potentially Swedish, side.
• The Finns may very well not opt for immediate asset deployment and perhaps would want to use their NATO membership as a signal to Russia but if they continue to feel sufficiently threatened, they may opt for exhaustive asset deployment.

Padmanabhaswamy Temple...

 

History

The origin of the Temple of Sree Padmanabhaswamy is lost in antiquity. It is not possible to determine with any exactitude, from any reliable historical documents or other sources as to when and by whom the original idol of Sree Padmanabhaswamy was consecrated. The Temple has references in Epics and Puranas. Srimad Bhagavatha says that Balarama visited this Temple, bathed in Padmatheertham and made several offerings. Nammalwar, 9th century poet and one among the 12 Vaishnavite saints of the Alvar tradition, has composed ten hymns in praise of Lord Padmanabha. Some well known scholars, writers and historians, like the late Dr. L.A.Ravi Varma of Travancore, have expressed the view that this Temple was established on the first day of Kali Yuga (which is over 5000 years ago). The legends of the Temple are handed down through the centuries. One such legend which finds a place in the old palm leaf records of the Temple, as also in the famous grantha entitled “Ananthasayana Mahatmya”, mentions that it was consecrated by a Tulu Brahmin hermit named Divakara Muni. On the 950th year of Kali Yuga a reinstallation of the idol was done. In the 960th Kali year King Kotha Marthandan built the Abhisravana Mandapam..

The story as narrated in the Ananthasayana Mahatmya goes as follows.

Divakara Muni was a great Vishnu Bhaktha. While at ‘Aanarthadesa’, he performed deep tapas. One day Maha Vishnu appeared before the sage as a lovely child. The charming child attracted the attention of the sage. He requested the God-child to stay with him. The child made his stay conditional. Accordingly, the Sanyasi should treat him with respect. On failing to do so, he would vanish at once. This was accepted and the child stayed with him. The hermit gave him great care and tolerated the childish pranks. One day, when the sanyasi was in deep meditation at his prayers, the chills took the ‘salagram’ which the sanyasi was using for worship and put it into his mouth and made such a nuisance of himself that Divakara Mini was greatly angered and could tolerate it no further. He thereupon chastised the child. In accordance with the earlier agreement, immediately the child ran away and disappeared from the spot. While going he said, “If you wish to see me again, you will find me again in Ananthankaadu”. It was only then that Divakara Muni realized who his erstwhile child guest had been. The hermit was stricken with inconsolable grief and for many days followed what, he believed was the route taken by the child foregoing food, rest and sleep in the process.

Finally he reached a wooded area near the sea coast, caught a glimpse of the child disappearing into a huge ‘Ilappa’ tree. Immediately the tree fell into the ground and it assumed the form of Sree Maha Vishnu. The divine form had its head at ‘Thiruvallam’(a place about 3 miles from East Fort at where the Temple of Sree Padmanabha Swamy is located) and its feet at ‘Trippapur’ (5 miles away towards the north). Overawed by the majesty and the size of the divine form, which manifested before him, the Sanyasi prayed to the Lord to condense Himself in size so that he could behold Him. There upon the image of the Lord shrank to a size, three times the length of the Sanyasy’s Yoga Dand. His prayers had been granted. He immediately offered a raw mango in a coconut shell(still this offering continues). The Lord ordained that, poojas to Him should be conducted by Tulu Brahmins. To this day half the number of poojaris(priests) in this Temple represent Tulu region. Another generally accepted version about the origin of the Temple relates it to the famous Namboothiri sanyasi Vilvamangalathu Swamiyar, whose name is linked with the histories of several temples in Southern India. This Swamiyar was also a Vishnu bhaktha. The legend is almost identical with that of Divakara Muni referred above. It is said that, when Sree Maha Vishnu presented himself in the Ananthasayana rupa (in the form of reclining on Anantha) before the sage at Ananthankaadu, the latter had nothing worthwhile to offer Him. From a mango tree standing nearby he plucked a few unripe mangoes and placed them in a coconut shell lying there and in all humility offered it as ‘nivedyam’ to the Lord. Even today salted mango forms a major offering. The original coconut shell has been encased in gold. It has also been the practice in the Temple for the past several centuries that the morning ‘pushpanjali’ is to be performed by a Namboothiri Brahmin sanyasi (designated Pushpanjaly Swamiyar) specially commissioned for this purpose.

These traditional customs coupled with the fact that the Pushpanjali Swamiyar holds a position of importance in the ‘Ettara Yogam’ (a committee which, at one time in the distant past, was the governing body of the Temple but has, over the years, become a ceremonial and advisory panel) lend substance and some measures of credence to the theory that this Temple was founded by Vilvamangalathu Swamiyar. On the other hand the legend of the Divakara Muni can be substantiated by the presence of a large number of Tulu Brahmins. Besides being represented in the ‘Yogam’, the Namboothiri Brahmins also have a position of eminence in the rituals and ceremonies of theTtemple . The Tantries(high priests) have always been from the Tharananalloor family belonging to this community. It is also believed that the small Sree Krishna Swamy Temple, located near the Western Swamiyar Madham (residence of one of the two Pushpanjali Swamiyars of the Temple) has been built over the Samadhi of Vilvamangalathu Swamiyar. Some historians and researchers hold the view that the Thiruvambadi shrine of Sree Krishna Swamy is older than the shrine of Sree Padmanabhaswamy. According to legend the Sree Narasimhaswamy and Sree Sastha shrines were established after the installation of the idol of Lord Sree Padmanabhaswamy. There is mention in the ‘Bhagavatha Purana’ (canto 10, chapter 79) that Sree Balarama visited “Syanandoorapuram” or “Ananthasayam” (Thiruvananthapuram) in the course of His pilgrimage. Similarly in the ‘Brahmanda Purana’ also there is a reference to “Syanandoorapura”. These references show that this Temple is of great antiquity and has been held in veneration over the centuries as an important seat of Sree Maha Vishnu. The compositions of Nammalvar, the great Vaishnavite saint, in praise of Sree Maha Vishnu of this city, prove beyond doubt that this Temple existed in the ninth century of this era. In the year 1050A.D.(225ME), the Temple was reconstructed and the management re-organized by the then ruler.

The next important recorded events relate to the period between 1335 A.D. and 1384 A.D. when Venad was ruled by a powerful and wise king named Veera Marthanda Varma. He gradually established his authority completely over the management and administration of the Temple. There are records to indicate that in the year 1375 A.D. the Alpasi Utsavam (ten days festival held in October-November) was conducted in the Temple. Some of the important events relating to the Temple which took place after the demise of this ruler until 1729 A.D. are given below.

• Between 1459 A.D. and 1460 A.D. the idol of Sree Padmanabhaswamy was removed to a ‘Balalaya’ for the purpose of re-construction of the roof of the sanctum sanctorum.
• In 1461 A.D. the idol was re installed and an Ottakkal Mandapam (Single granite stone slab abutting the sanctum sanctorum) was put up.
• In 1566 A.D. the foundation was laid for the Gopuram (pagoda) over the main eastern entrance.
• In 1686 A.D. the Temple was almost fully destroyed in a major fire accident. Work on the re- construction of the Temple was started only in 1724.
• In 1728 A.D. propitiatory ceremonies, connected with the serious fire of 1686, were conducted.

It was in the year 1729 that the great ruler Marthanda Varma became the king of Travancore. He took the steps to renovate the Temple. In 1730 the idol was again moved to ‘Balalaya’ prior to the renovation and reconstruction of the sanctum sanctorum. It took two years for completion. The old wooden idol was replaced by the one that we see today. Made of highly complex amalgam known as Katusarkarayogam, it contains 12008 Salagrams within it. Most of what is seen today within the walls of the temple were constructed. It is recorded that 4000 sculptors, 6000 labourers and 100 elephants worked for a period of 6 months to finish the construction of the sreebalippura (the oblong corridor). This magnificent rectangular corridor built of solid stones protects the Deities during seeveli on rainy days. The gopuram for which the foundation had been laid in 1566, was built during this period. Similarly the flag-staff in front of the main shrine was also erected at this time. Teak wood of required size was brought from the forest for this purpose and transported to the Temple in such a way that no part of the wood touched the ground. The pole was then covered completely with gold sheets. The renovation of the Temple tank, the Padmatheertham, including the flight steps and its completion in the form we see it today was also undertaken during this great ruler’s time.

A Long Term Strategy to Tackle Heat Waves...

 

India has been in the grip of what seems like an eternity of heat waves. The temperatures over north-west and central India in April 2022 were the highest in 122 years.

India is no stranger to heatwaves but what stands out about the heatwaves this year is the remarkably earlier timing, and the large spatial extent, extending from the northwestern to the southeastern parts of the country.

It is time now that concrete plans are put in place to deal with heat waves and closely linked extreme weather events. Early warning systems, heat-proof shelters and major afforestation are of vital need to reduce heat wave fatalities.

What are Heat Waves and Causes of its Occurrence?

• A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western and South Central parts of India. It is a condition of air temperature which becomes fatal to the human body when exposed.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) requires that temperatures should reach at least 40℃ in the plains and at least 30℃ in the hilly regions, and should reflect an increase of at least 5℃-6℃ above the normal temperature to be classified as a heatwave.
• The proximate causes for the searing heat are an absence of rain-bearing Western Disturbances or tropical storms that bring rain from the Mediterranean over north India.
  • The combination of global warming and population growth in already-warm cities in India is the primary driver of increased heat exposure.
  • The Urban Heat Island (UHI) also elevates temperatures within cities, which will be amplified during the heatwaves.
    • It occurs when cities replace natural land cover with dense concentrations of pavement, buildings, and other surfaces that absorb and retain heat.

How Intense the Heat Waves have Become in India?

• Heatwaves are a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June, however, heatwaves in the year 2022 began early due to the gradually increasing maximum temperatures in many parts of India.
• As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
  • This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
• The number of people killed due to heat waves has also increased from 5,457 over 1981-1990 to 11,555 over 2011-2020. Since 1967, 39,815 people have been killed due to heat waves across India.

What is the State-Specific Scenario of Heat Waves’ intensity?

• Based on the geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions, the highest number of people have been killed in Uttar Pradesh (6,745), followed by Andhra Pradesh (5,088), Bihar (3,364), Maharashtra (2,974), Punjab (2,720), Madhya Pradesh (2,607), West Bengal (2,570), Odisha (2,406), Gujarat (2,049), Rajasthan (1,951), Tamil Nadu (1,443), Haryana (1,116), Telangana (1,067), Delhi (996), Jharkhand (855), Karnataka (560), Assam (348), and 954 people were killed across the remaining 12 States.
• According to the Maharashtra Health Department, this year’s heat waves have claimed 25 lives in the State.

How Harmful are these Heat Waves?

• Human Mortality: Mortality due to heat waves occurs because of rising temperature, lack of public awareness programmes, and inadequate long-term mitigation measures.
  • According to a 2019 report of the Tata Centre for Development and the University of Chicago, by 2100, annually, more than 1.5 million people will be likely to die due to extreme heat caused by climate change.
  • The increased heat will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
• Impact on Economy: The frequent occurrence of heat waves also adversely affects different sectors of the economy. For instance, the livelihood of poor and marginal farmers is negatively impacted due to the loss of working days. Heatwaves have an adverse impact on these workers’ productivity, impacting the economy.
  • According to an ILO report of 2019, India lost around 4.3% of working hours due to heat stress in 1995 and is expected to lose 5.8% of working hours in 2030.
    • It also shows that 9.04% of working hours are expected to be lost in each agriculture and construction sectors, respectively, due to heat stress in 2030.
• Crop Damage and Food Insecurity: The concurrence of heat and drought events are causing crop production losses and tree mortality.
  • The risks to health and food production will be made more severe from the sudden food production losses exacerbated by heat-induced labour productivity losses.
  • These interacting impacts will increase food prices, reduce household incomes, and lead to malnutrition and climate-related deaths, especially in tropical regions.
• Impact on Workers: Workers in sectors like agriculture and construction will be severely impacted in 2030 because India’s large population depends on these sectors for their livelihoods.
  • What should be of interest to India is that countries and regions with precarious labour market conditions are likely to suffer higher productivity losses with such extreme heatwaves.
    • In absolute terms, India is likely to lose around 34 million full-time jobs in 2030 due to heat stress.
• Weaker Sections to be Specifically Impacted: The climate science community has reported overwhelming evidence that extreme events such as heatwaves are likely to become more intense, more frequent and of longer duration in future unless emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols are significantly cut globally.
  • It is important to remember that heatwaves in India, such as the current event, have the potential to influence thousands of vulnerable and poor people who contributed very little to the climate crisis.

Where does India Stand in terms of a Heat Wave Impact Mitigation Strategy?

• Before 2015, no national-level heatwave action plan was available to fight against such calamities.
  • At the regional-level, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) prepared the first Heat Action Plan in 2013, followed by the devastating heatwave-related deaths in 2010.
• In 2016, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) issued comprehensive guidelines to prepare national level key strategies for mitigating the impact of heatwaves.
• Although some preventive measures have been undertaken to mitigate and adapt to extreme weather-related shocks, such initiatives are insufficient to prevent human fatalities from heatwaves as implementing preventive measures, mitigation, and preparedness actions remains difficult.

What Long-Term Strategies does India need to Adopt to Mitigate the Impacts of Heat Waves?

• A Heat Waves Action Plan: The adverse impacts of heat waves indicate that effective disaster adaptation strategies and more robust disaster management policies are required in heatwave zones to lessen the impact of heatwaves.
  • As deaths due to heatwaves are preventable, the government must prioritise preparing a long-term action plan to safeguard human lives, livestock, and wildlife.
  • Effective implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-30 with the State playing a leading role and sharing responsibility with other stakeholders is now the need of the hour.
• Early Warning Systems: Death from heat waves can be prevented by installing improved early warning systems that communicate heatwave threats, recommend different preventative measures, and constrain disaster impacts.
  • Disseminating public awareness through print, electronic and social media, providing heat-proof shelter facilities during summer, easing access to public drinking water, and huge afforestation in urban and rural areas would help mitigate heatwave fatalities.
• Declaration of Heat Waves as a Natural Disaster: Recognising heat waves as a major disaster is long due. India still has a long way to go in building public awareness, particularly on how individuals and local communities can take care of themselves.
  • Also, there needs to be clear guidelines regarding when to shut schools or about the optimal ranges of temperatures that a household AC should be kept at or how long one should stay outdoors if that’s unavoidable.
• Local Level Preparedness: Heatwave is India’s second most lethal disaster after the flood. Declaring heat waves as a natural disaster would help the state and district administration prepare a heatwave action plan at the regional level.
  • This will help build resilience infrastructure, develop early warning infrastructure, and create public awareness.
  • It is also crucial to prepare a database at the district level involving the age, gender, and occupation of people who have died due to heatwaves.
• Passive Cooling to Reduce UHIs: Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings.
  • The IPCC’s AR6 report cites ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, which could be adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
• Replacing Dark Roofs: A big reason that cities are so much hotter than rural areas is that they are covered by dark roofs, roads and parking lots that absorb and retain heat.
  • One of the long term solutions can be replacing the dark surfaces with lighter and more reflective materials; it will result in a comparatively cooler environment.